Transforming Construction with Off-Site Methods and Technologies

Transitioning to Offsite Construction: Capability-Resilience-Alignment or Abject Failure?

Volkan Ezcan — 2026-08-12

Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) is increasingly turning to offsite construction (OSC) as a strategic response to address performance and productivity challenges. This has (in the main) been very successful, especially where transition and migration plans have been established beforehand. However, more recently, there have been a number of high-profile business failures [ergo new entrants to OSC] which has raised significant concerns on the ‘true level of understanding and awareness’ of OSC – especially on “demands and needs”. This is seen as a major challenge and a critical gap in organisational resilience. In order to start to address this, this paper highlights the need to secure a much deeper and richer understanding of OSC transitional arrangements – particularly those which support resilience capabilities. Organisational resilience is proffered as a dynamic, multi-layered construct of Business Systems, where capability-based constructs directly/indirectly affect operationalisation. In this respect, studies have shown that organisational awareness (especially across stratified management levels) can often have an impact on transitional arrangements to such sectors as OSC.

In order to understand these issues and impact on AEC organisations, this research followed an interpretivist approach using multiple case study actors. Three case study organisations (with international experience in OSC) were selected from Türkiye. From these organisations, 24 semi-structured interviews were conducted across three different management levels (to assess differences in thinking). Qualitative insights from these interviews were examined using the Relative Existence Index (REI) and the Relative Perception Gap Index (RPGI). This approach enabled cross-level examination across these three companies and respective organisational layers.

Findings revealed uneven perceptions across these companies, and through organisational management strata. This reinforced the notion of ‘misalignment’; which inter alia, acted as a conditioning constraint and barrier, thereby limiting capability mobilisation and subsequent transformation. These findings align to traits evidenced in Dynamic Capabilities (DC) theory. Thus, in order to move this challenge forward, this paper presents a multi-layered conceptual framework for discussion. This conceptualises resilience operationalisation as a six-layered solution, highlighting cross-level alignment as a critical element which can influence successful organisational transformation.

Creation of Standardised Residential Construction Details for Light-Gauge Steel Panelised Offsite Construction

D McCrum — 2026-08-12

This paper presents the STANDARDIZE project, which is developing standardised construction details for Category 2 Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) to support regulatory compliance and wider adoption in the residential sector. A structured evaluation of MMC typologies—modular steel, modular precast concrete, panelised timber, panelised light-gauge steel (LGS), panelised precast concrete, and insulated concrete formwork—was conducted through an industry stakeholder-driven workshop. Based on criteria including technical maturity, typology, industry needs, certifiability, risk mitigation and scalability, panelised LGS systems were selected. This paper presents a development methodology comprising: (i) consolidation of existing Agrément-certified Category 2 LGS systems; (ii) gap analysis against Irish Building Regulations and performance requirements; and (iii) targeted experimental validation to address identified deficiencies and expand the evidence base for standardised details. The experimental testing of LGS system that covers structural performance, fire resistance, durability, moisture behaviour, and acoustics, will be conducted to relevant EN standards at accredited testing facilities. Results will be made openly accessible to support industry uptake. In parallel, industry stakeholders are advancing the development of an Irish Standard for Category 2 MMC, informed by the project outcomes.

Artificial Intelligence Based Estimation of Offsite Panel Requirements in Building Construction: Challenges and Opportunities

B. Gülmez — 2026-08-12

The construction industry is increasingly adopting offsite panelised systems, particularly light gauge steel (LGS) panel solutions, as a means of improving productivity, reducing waste, and accelerating project delivery. However, a critical challenge remains in accurately determining the quantity of LGS panels and any supporting hot-rolled steel (HRS) requirements for a given building project in the early stages of tendering, design, and planning. Estimating LGS and HRS quantities involves complex interdependencies between architectural configurations, structural requirements, building typologies, and site-specific constraints. Traditional estimation methods, which rely heavily on expert judgement and manual quantification processes, are time-consuming, inconsistent, and prone to error, often resulting in procurement inefficiencies. Despite growing research on artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) applications in construction, their specific application to offsite LGS panel quantity estimation remains largely unexplored. Data-driven approaches capable of processing multiple building parameters simultaneously are needed to generate reliable quantity predictions for early-stage decision-making. The presented research proposes a conceptual framework for applying AI and ML techniques to estimate LGS panel and HRS requirements for building projects. The framework identifies key input parameters including building geometry, floor area, storey height, structural system type, complexity, and opening ratios. A structured methodology is outlined encompassing data requirements, feature identification, model selection considerations, and validation approaches. The framework addresses implementation challenges including data scarcity in offsite construction, workflow integration, and interpretability of model outputs for industry practitioners. The proposed framework has the potential to improve the accuracy and efficiency of LGS and HRS quantity estimation, support better procurement planning, and reduce material wastage. This conceptual contribution, developed through a University College Dublin – Evolusion Innovation partnership, provides a structured foundation for future empirical studies and AI tool development in offsite construction.

Growing Modern Methods of Construction into an Industry

Christian Koch — 2026-08-12

Affordable housing is a key element of the European welfare state. Modern methods of construction (MMC) have re-emerged as a contemporary response, based on the expectation that industrial production can ensure low costs and adequate quality of housing. Yet several attempts to establish such production have failed. And this time around the demand for sustainability is added. This study therefore asks which complementary factors are required for these methods to deliver affordable housing in Europe scrutinizing the Swedish experiences. The argument is that beyond technology, processes, and products, additional elements such as raw materials, customers, finance, competencies, and a supportive production culture are essential. Institutional theory provides a framework, emphasizing that not only industries defined by firms, products, technologies and markets are needed, but broader industry exchange fields. The analysis shows that the Swedish modular housing sector exhibits key features of such a field: a focal population of firms and partners, a shared purpose, semi-permeable boundaries, and a relational structure with core and peripheral actors, multiple logics, and a partial collective identity. These features support some isomorphism and diffusion among participants and to new participants. Moreover, so far, the industry has been able to deliver acceptable levels of sustainability. Such institutional arrangements are difficult to replicate. While technologies can be transferred, establishing a functioning field requires wider interventions, including financial support and public regulation. The Swedish case further demonstrates that intervening in and changing market conditions demands strong and long-term efforts, including sustained demand from public, semi-public, and private actors.

CITB Impact Fund – Timber in Construction Skills Development

Steve Bertasso — 2026-08-12

The UK construction industry faces a significant skills shortage, particularly in the management and on-site delivery of timber MMC. This shortage is driven by a lack of resources, training content, and educational and career pathways for both new entrants and existing workers. This paper reports on the approach and early findings of a UK Construction Industry Training Board (CITB) Impact Fund project, “Timber in Construction Skills”, aimed at addressing these challenges. The project supports the aims of the UK Timber in Construction Roadmap, a Government-Industry Partnership launched in 2025, by creating new educational resources and improving skills pathways; developing and implementing accredited training programmes for existing and standalone educational provision; and collaborating with sector stakeholders and external partners to achieve scalable impact. This paper provides an overview of the skills gap analysis and early results, identifying gaps for educational interventions. By applying a novel AI-driven gap analysis methodology, identified competency deficiencies can be systematically translated into targeted educational interventions, supporting the management and on-site delivery of off-site-manufactured timber MMC.

Prefabrication in a South African Metropole

J. Smallwood — 2026-08-12

The adoption of prefabrication in many developing countries, including South Africa, remains slow. The aim of the study was to determine why the adoption of prefabrication in South African construction has been slow, and to evolve a framework of interventions to promote the adoption thereof. An online quantitative study was conducted among a range of built environment practitioners in the Nelson Mandela Bay metropole. Key findings include: quality, schedule, and cost predominate in terms of the benefits of prefabrication; limitation of design changes, the need for early constructability information, and increased upfront capital costs predominate in terms of the constraints to prefabrication, and there is potential for and a need for increased prefabrication. Conclusions include: prefabrication is not pervasive; there is an ‘appetite’ for prefabrication; increased usage is dependent upon the availability of prefabricated systems and elements, designers’ willingness to adopt them, and designers’ willingness to engender prefabrication through design; there is a valid case for prefabrication, especially with respect to quality, but also schedule, on site work, and cost; there are challenges in terms of the adoption of prefabricated systems and elements, however, they are not insurmountable, and there is potential to increase prefabrication due to the resulting benefits. In terms of recommendations, five categories of interventions were evolved to promote the adoption of prefabrication, namely information, awareness, design, competency, and manufacturers.

Shortage or Mismatch: Reframing the Skills Challenge for Offsite Construction Delivery and Resilience

Buddhini Ginigaddara — 2026-08-12

The global construction sectors are facing a persistent skills shortage presenting it as one of the most pressing challenges around the world. This has led to a worsening global housing crisis, housing unaffordability, continuous productivity declines and predicted severe negative impacts over the next decades along with an increased push towards factory-made buildings. As such, this study seeks to answer the research question: “how do skills mismatches and shortages affect offsite construction delivery and resilience?” The research adopted a qualitative approach to conduct a cross-country analysis of offsite construction skills in the Australian and the United Kingdom construction sectors. A critical literature review was conducted using secondary data collected from industry bodies and global reports to identify comparable employment status measures and offsite construction adoption. This was followed by an evaluation of factors that affect the uptake of offsite construction and its resilience over a prolonged period. Some of these factors include regulatory push towards industrialisation, migration policies, training, education and employment pathways to join construction from non-cognate backgrounds as well as the impact of significant workforce employed at micro, small and medium construction enterprises. This research presents initial findings with practical implications for understanding how offsite construction skills can be improved by understanding skills shortages and mismatches.

Best Procurement Practices for Off-Site Construction: A Systematic Literature Review

Sadaf Montazeri — 2026-08-12

Off-site construction has been promoted as a solution to persistent challenges in the construction industry, including low productivity, labour shortages, cost overruns, and schedule delays. While many studies have focused on technical and process optimizations, procurement remains an underexplored factor influencing the successful delivery of off-site construction projects. Procurement decisions shape early stakeholder involvement, design–manufacturing integration, cash flow mechanisms, supply chain coordination, and risk allocation; consequently, many traditional procurement approaches are poorly suited to realize the benefits of off-site construction.

This paper is based on a systematic literature review of 30 peer-reviewed studies supported by bibliometric and thematic analyses. A systematic review was conducted, including scoping, database searches, and a PRISMA-based screening process to identify the final set of studies. For each study, structured data were extracted, and bibliometric analysis was used to identify overall research patterns and trends. A comparative procurement matrix was developed to evaluate model performance against key OSC operational criteria.

The results indicate a clear increase in research on off-site construction procurement since 2020, with most contributions originating from Australia, China, Hong Kong, and the United Kingdom. The literature consistently shows that conventional procurement approaches, such as design–bid–build, are poorly aligned with off-site construction requirements. In contrast, more collaborative and integrated models, including progressive design-build, integrated project delivery, construction management, early contractor involvement, and just-in-time strategies, demonstrate greater potential to support off-site construction by enabling early cash flow, improving coordination with manufacturers, and enhancing supply chain resilience. Key challenges identified include fragmented supply chains, a lack of standardized codes and contractual frameworks, ineffective payment mechanisms, logistics and storage constraints, limited real-time information sharing, and low trust among project stakeholders.

The paper concludes by identifying research gaps and outlining future directions for developing context-specific procurement frameworks to support scalable off-site construction.

Automation Impact Analysis: A Conceptual Framework for Tracing System-Wide Consequences of Automation in Off-Site Construction

Saeid Metvaei — 2026-08-12

The automation of production activities in off-site manufacturing plants has demonstrated measurable gains in cycle time, labor efficiency, and dimensional precision. Yet despite these well-documented benefits, adoption among manufacturers remains notably low, driven in part by an insufficient understanding of what automation implementation operationally entails beyond the automated station itself. Existing decision-support frameworks evaluate automation at the station level through performance comparisons, neglecting the system-wide knock-on effects that may propagate through interconnected production activities when a single station is automated. These effects, including upstream shifts in data preparation and procurement demands, downstream bottleneck migrations, workforce restructuring, and spatial reconfiguration, represent real operational costs that remain invisible in current assessment approaches. To address this gap, this paper proposes the Automation Impact Analysis (AIA) framework, a modular, system-oriented analytical structure adapted from the Change Impact Analysis methodology established in the manufacturing industry. The AIA traces how a defined automation scenario propagates through the production system by following the material flow, informational, technical, spatial, and organizational dependencies that link activities to one another, surfacing the consequential activities and responsive actions that the system must accommodate. These propagated effects are then translated into system-level performance shifts and consolidated into a total cost-benefit evaluation that brings implementation costs and operational gains into the same analytical frame. The framework provides manufacturers with a structured, auditable pathway from automation intent to informed investment decision, grounded in the realistic complexity of their production systems rather than idealized station-level projections.

AI-Assisted PDF Extraction and Rule-Based Production Time Estimation in Structural Steel Assembly Using Historical Production Data

Sanaz Aghajamali — 2026-08-12

Offsite construction improves quality control, accelerates project completion, and minimizes disruptions at the construction site compared with traditional onsite construction methods. Within this paradigm, steel fabrication plays an essential role by enabling structural elements to be produced under controlled conditions, thereby increasing precision and supporting a more efficient assembly process. Despite these advantages, inaccurate production time estimation in steel fabrication plants remains a persistent challenge, contributing to cost overruns, project delays, suboptimal resource allocation, and difficulties in short-term production planning. A primary driver of this inaccuracy is an interoperability gap: the detailed parametric data required for reliable time estimation is typically locked within unstructured design files, such as 2D shop drawing PDFs, making it inaccessible for automated prediction models. To bridge this gap, the present study proposes a structured, design-driven workflow that extracts and leverages latent information from shop drawings to estimate structural steel assembly times. The methodology operates in two sequential stages. First, an AI-assisted extraction framework parses unstructured PDF data into structured inputs, isolating key assembly variables including member sectional dimensions, weight, crane handling requirements, and the quantity of attached components. Second, these inputs are integrated into a rule-based computational model that calculates production time using historical productivity rates and logic-driven algorithms. By creating a direct pipeline between static design documentation and dynamic production planning, this approach establishes a practical foundation for early-stage estimation and look-ahead scheduling. A proof of concept using a representative shop drawing confirms the workflow's feasibility. The findings demonstrate that this method provides a scalable, consistent, and practically implementable framework for estimating production time, laying the groundwork for advanced scheduling and decision-support systems in steel fabrication.

4D BIM for Site Layout and On-Site Logistics (SLOL) Planning: A Case Study of Modular Construction

Muhammad Attizaz — 2026-08-12

Construction site layout and on-site logistics planning (SLOL) is an important task in the pre-construction phase of projects due to its impact on project time, cost, productivity, health and safety. This planning task is challenging using traditional approaches such as 2D drawings or Gantt charts. For example, modular construction requires the handling and installation of large modules on site, which can be complicated on congested sites due to safety and productivity concerns. 4D BIM can address this complexity by simulating the main construction activities, their impact on site layout and their interactions over time to identify issues, bottlenecks and potential room for improvement. This paper presents a case study of adopting 4D BIM for site layout planning and on-site logistics of a modular construction project. In addition, a proposed method is developed from a conceptual framework outlining the process for adopting this approach. Using the widely adopted 4D BIM software packages in the construction industry, Autodesk Navisworks and Synchro 4D Pro, the proposed method was validated, and 4D BIM analysis identified and mitigated different critical issues in this case study, which can improve site layout and logistics management in off-site construction projects. Furthermore, the capabilities of both 4D software packages were compared, and it was found that Navisworks is useful for quick 4D review, clash detection and coordination, while Synchro 4D Pro provides stronger 4D planning, resource management, identification of workspace clashes and task sequencing. This study contributes to the body of knowledge and practice by providing insight into how to adopt 4D BIM for site layout and on-site logistics planning in modular construction through developing a proposed method and analysing it in a case study.

BIM-Enabled Quality Control Framework for Off-Site Construction (OSC)

M.E Bajgholi — 2026-08-12

Off-Site Construction (OSC) relies on the factory-based production of building components, where effective quality control is essential to prevent defects from propagating into transportation, installation, and on-site assembly stages. Within this context, Inspection data generated through Non-Destructive Testing (NDT), constitutes a key input to quality control, providing systematic inspection techniques that enable the evaluation of material integrity, fabrication quality, and assembly accuracy without damaging or altering prefabricated components. NDT is particularly suited to OSC environments as inspections must be performed on high-value elements under tight production schedules, where destructive testing is impractical and economically prohibitive. NDT offers practical tools for identifying defects and construction-related discontinuities in prefabricated elements; however, inspection outcomes are often disconnected from Building Information Modelling (BIM) workflows used for design coordination and construction planning. This disconnect limits the use of inspection data for construction decision-making and lifecycle quality management. This paper presents a construction-oriented framework for integrating NDT inspection results into BIM-based workflows for OSC projects. The proposed approach aligns factory-level inspections with BIM models to support defect traceability, quality documentation, and coordination across design and manufacturing phases. NDT methods applicable to prefabricated construction components are mapped to BIM elements, enabling visualization of inspection results and systematic tracking of quality issues throughout the project lifecycle. An application scenario based on a prefabricated steel welded joint system is used to illustrate the implementation of the framework. Inspection methods are applied to detect and characterize weld defects such as lack of fusion (LOF), lack of penetration (LOP), porosity, and cracking in weld joints. The inspection data are processed and mapped to BIM components using a structured workflow. The application scenario demonstrates how NDT inspection data can be integrated into BIM workflow to support defect visualization, traceability, and quality control in steel structures used in off-site construction. The study highlights the role of BIM-enabled inspection integration as a practical pathway toward more reliable, efficient, and data-driven quality control processes in off-site construction.

Lean Management Model for Sustainable Project Delivery in Egypt: Implications for Off-Site Construction Adoption

Ahmed Osama Daoud — 2026-08-12

Off-site construction depends on reliable planning, coordinated information flow, process stability, workforce capability, and digital integration. These requirements closely align with the organisational conditions needed for successful lean implementation. This paper develops and validates a lean management model for Egypt's construction industry with a specific focus on the critical success factors (CSFs) and their enabling conditions. Building on the research theoretical model, five exogenous constructs - top management support, employee training and engagement, process standardisation, collaboration and communication, and technology and innovation - were operationalised through fifteen enablers and tested using responses from 120 construction professionals. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was employed to examine measurement reliability, convergent validity, and the structural effects of each CSF on lean management outcomes. The results confirm that all five paths are positive and statistically significant. Top management support is the strongest predictor of lean outcomes (β = 0.5235), followed by technology and innovation (β = 0.4591), employee training and engagement (β = 0.3167), collaboration and communication (β = 0.2644), and process standardisation (β = 0.2630). The model explains 76.5% of the variance in lean management outcomes. The paper contributes an empirically grounded framework that translates the original model into an implementation logic suitable for Egyptian construction firms seeking to improve productivity, coordination, and value delivery. The model is rooted in the broader problem of limited awareness, fragmented delivery practices, weak training, and inconsistent leadership commitment in Egypt, which together prevent lean tools from being institutionalised at the firm level. By translating these contextual challenges into CSFs and enablers, the study moves from general advocacy of lean to a measurable implementation architecture.

Multi-Objective Workforce Allocation for Off-Site Construction Assembly Using Parallel Simulated Annealing

Andrea Sbaragli — 2026-08-12

This paper proposes a scalable optimisation framework for workforce allocation in off-site con-struction assembly. The method supports daily staffing decisions in a job shop environment where steel-frame products are assigned to parallel stations. Economic performance and delivery reliability are captured by labour cost, total tardiness, and delay severity. The framework combines a production model, parallel Pareto Simulated Annealing, and context-aware neighbourhood moves. These searches adjust the staffing plan by redistributing workers, opening additional stations, or closing underutilised capacity based on tar-diness pressure, slack and utilisation. The method is validated on an off-site construction case study with 1769 structural steel frames, heterogeneous assembly workloads, and seven delivery deadlines. Results show that redistribution moves are ineffective in reducing delays against planned due dates. Configurations with station opening/closing eliminate tardiness and delay severity at low labour cost, converging in about 2 hours.

A Modular Management Information System for Real-Time Rail Logistics, Offsite Supply Chain Integration, and Just-in-Time Inventory Optimisation

A. Gouda Mohamed — 2026-08-12

The transition toward more industrialised, digitalised, sustainable, and resilient construction systems requires integrated control of procurement, logistics, inventory, and site coordination, particularly where offsite fabrication, supplier-side kitting, and distributed storage must feed time-sensitive rail installation zones. Large-scale rail infrastructure projects are especially affected by geographically dispersed operations, fragmented communication, limited real-time visibility, and inefficient material control, which collectively contribute to delays, waste, and cost overruns. This study develops and prototypes a Rail Logistics Management System (RLMS) as a modular Management Information System designed to coordinate real-time logistics, offsite supply chain interfaces, and Just-In-Time inventory practices in complex rail construction environments. The research follows a design-science, prototype-driven approach comprising problem definition, requirements synthesis from literature and rail logistics workflow mapping, data and process modelling, interface prototyping, and illustrative scenario demonstration. The proposed system integrates procurement management, shipment tracking, distributed storage control, site material requests, and performance reporting within a unified digital platform. Entity-relationship diagrams, sequence models, state transition logic, and role-based access management are used to support data integrity, traceability, and process consistency across modules. By linking operational transactions to real-time dashboards, the RLMS offers a conceptual basis for improved transparency, proactive decision-making, and offsite-on-site coordination. The study contributes a socio-technical digital framework for rail logistics management, while recognising that future case, simulation, or field validation is required to quantify operational benefits.

Advanced Materials’ Life Cycle Assessments: LCA of Alternative Binders for Engineered Wood Products

Sam Ashton — 2026-08-12

Engineered wood products EWPs, seldom assess the off-site incorporation of glues, epoxy resins and binders. To address this gap, a life-cycle assessment (LCA via SimaPro) of four adhesives is presented: melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF); polyurethane (PUR); a hybrid PUR-Soy adhesive; and, an adhesive-free dowel-laminated timber (DLT) system. The functional unit of the amount of adhesive required for 1m³ of cross-laminated-timber CLT is adopted within a cradle-to-gate scope. Environmental impacts are quantified across the key indicators of: global warming potential; eutrophication; ozone depletion; and, fossil fuel depletion. Results are normalised and aggregated using a weighted eco-point framework informed by Western Australian practitioner feedback. Supplementary modelling provided by XLam extended the analysis, evaluating the influence of adhesives on end-of-life scenarios such as recycling, energy recovery, landfill and reuse. Results show that MUF exhibited the lowest eco-point score overall despite the partial organic material substitution in PUR-Soy; however, findings show that adhesives contribute only 1.7-2.2% of the environmental burden of a whole CLT product representing a negligible impact. Despite this relatively minor contribution during the off-site production phase, further cradle-to-cradle analysis revealed that end-of-life EoL disposal pathways have a critical influence on the overall environmental scores of the CLT products, with over 200% variation depending on the scenario chosen. If adhesives are found to directly restrict viable disposal options, then they will play a much more critical role in determining the environmental impacts of engineered wood products. This work recommends continued innovation in bio-based and mechanical bonding systems and development of specific legislation for the disposal of EWPs with regard to adhesive contents, to allow a clearer understanding of the full impacts of these advanced materials.

Using Off-Site Construction as an Integral Component of Mining and Mineral Processing Site Closure Rehabilitation Planning

Jack Retzlaff — 2026-08-12

Operators and owners must employ sustainable rehabilitation practices when closing mine and mineral processing sites. Mine closure planning (MCP) must address regulatory and environmental obligations, and satisfy stakeholder expectations, regarding site rehabilitated conditions when operations cease. While MCP is fundamental to mining life-cycles, inadequate efforts have led to failed rehabilitation and community conflicts over post-processing land use. Increased application of off-site construction (OSC) methods, from initial mine planning and design stages onwards, can improve these outcomes. Improved planning of decommissioning practices reduces long-term degradation, supports safer cleaner environments, and offers value-adding solutions to surrounding communities. Drawing on themes extracted during semi-structured interviews with purposively sampled mining industry practitioners, experienced in surface mine closure planning and rehabilitation in Western Australia, closure recommendations and options, from development stages onwards are presented. Key matters relate to regulatory guidance and governance; technical and environmental factors; and broader community considerations and accountability. Future MCP should expand OSC utilisation to increase efficient and effective removal/re-use of mineral processing and supporting non-process infrastructure to improve environmental, social, and economic rehabilitation of the affected region. A conceptual framework is presented to promote continuous improvement in MCP considerations throughout a mine’s life-cycle, together with specific OSC options. Beyond the traditional transportation, construction and operations criteria, OSC-based designs offer improved decommissioning, reuse, re-application, re-location, and new ownership phase possibilities. Increased application of OSC techniques can lead to better ecosystem recovery positions, ongoing land use and employment opportunities, and thus better local community acceptance, post mining cessation.

Supply Chain Contingency Estimation: Calculation Methods Towards Better Management of Risk and Cost-Overrun

Survarna Ananthasivan — 2026-08-12

Contingency estimation methods are largely misapplied in the construction industry and currently align inadequately with risk and cost-overrun. The work discussed here addresses this gap, to present a newly developed structured mechanism to help the project-team choose an appropriate calculation method based upon project type, supply chain, and (on & off) site complexities to minimise cost overrun. Three contingency estimation methods, namely: deterministic methods; probabilistic methods; and, modern mathematical methods are reviewed, then, using a mixed-methods research approach that includes qualitative semi-structured interviews with key Western-Australian industry experts to build necessarily upon relevant secondary research, the work presents a means to select a best estimation method, depending on the project’s (on or off) site circumstances. This work clarifies that deterministic methods can be used for simple, repetitive and low complex projects and supply chains - suitable contingency percentages can be applied from past, similar project risk factors and complexities; it is determined here that this estimation method provides a simple and quick decision-making tool to determine the project contingency. On the other hand, complex and large-scale projects, typically with a multitude of uncertainties and risks, are apt to incur additional costs and delay the project; thus, the project team can be guided towards individual risk events, calculate the consequences in terms of cost and time, and finally define risk mitigation strategies. A structured mechanism is presented that allows precedential experience, (on or off) site conditions, internal and external factors, and key risk events’ identification, to guide choice of the most appropriate, contingency estimation analyses method for a project at hand.

Cable Driven Parallel Robots for Rapid Post Disaster Housing Construction in Displaced Communities

Kavitha Vipulananda — 2026-08-12

Each year natural disasters and forced displacement leave tens of millions of people without adequate shelter. Conventional humanitarian construction responses are slow, carbon intensive and poorly matched to the terrain, climate and cultural context of affected communities. Robotic and automated approaches, including concrete 3D printing, serial robotic arms and prefabricated modular units, have each been proposed as faster alternatives, but each carries fundamental limitations in post-disaster deployment contexts. This paper proposes that cable-driven parallel robots (CDPRs), a class of robotic system already demonstrated in architectural and construction contexts, offer a solution to this problem that has not previously been examined. Through a structured review of existing CDPR systems developed for construction, including SPIDERobot, CU-Brick and the IPAnema family, the paper identifies the core properties that make CDPRs well suited to post-disaster deployment: large workspace from lightweight portable infrastructure, reconfigurability without heavy plant, adaptability to irregular terrain and the ability to anchor to existing structural elements. A cross analysis of humanitarian shelter requirements against CDPR capabilities reveals a strong alignment, alongside specific gaps in weatherproofing, localisation in environments where Global Positioning System (GPS) signals are degraded and rapid operator training that current systems do not address. The paper proposes a six-priority research agenda, covering localisation, end effector design, operator interfaces, field durability and material adaptability, and identifies that deployment requirements differ meaningfully across seismic, flood and conflict-driven displacement contexts. The research agenda draws on the demonstrated capabilities of existing systems rather than speculative design.

Perception-Responsive Adaptive Virtual Reality for Construction Hazard Recognition: A Feasibility Study

Ali Sharifironizi — 2026-08-12

Hazard recognition deficiencies remain a primary factor contributing to accidents in the construction industry, where workers often fail to visually detect critical safety cues due to perceptual and attentional limitations. Although virtual reality (VR) has emerged as an effective tool for immersive safety training, most current systems do not account for individual differences in visual attention or perceptual capability. This study investigates the feasibility of a gaze-driven adaptive VR training framework that dynamically modifies instructional support and scenario complexity in response to trainees’ real-time perceptual performance. The system continuously captures eye-tracking metrics across predefined hazard Areas of Interest, including Time-to-First Fixation, fixation count, normalized dwell time, and scanpath dispersion. These metrics are synthesised into discrete perceptual performance states using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier, which subsequently guides adaptive adjustments to hazard salience, visual guidance, and task difficulty within the VR environment. A pilot study involving 17 participants was conducted across baseline (n=7) and adaptive VR (n=10) conditions to evaluate system feasibility, real-time operation, and user experience. Results indicate that the framework effectively distinguished variability in participants’ perceptual patterns and successfully triggered adaptive modifications during training. The classifier achieved an overall accuracy of 88.3% with a ROC–AUC of 0.92, while usability evaluation using the System Usability Scale (SUS) produced a mean score of 84.25 for the adaptive condition, indicating strong perceived usability at the prototype stage. Overall, the findings demonstrate the feasibility of integrating gaze-based perceptual monitoring with adaptive VR safety training and highlight the potential of perception-responsive training systems for supporting construction hazard recognition.

Off-Site Construction as an Enabling Mechanism in Mega-Project Development: A Model for the Entrepreneurial Business Developer Intermediary (EBDI)

A. B. M Saad — 2026-08-12

Off-site construction (OSC) offers well-established advantages in productivity, quality, and sustainability; however, its strategic adoption in public-private partnership (PPP) mega-project development remains limited, particularly in emerging economies. This paper argues that the primary constraint is institutional and governance-related rather than purely technological or financial, specifically the absence of a boundary-spanning intermediary capable of translating OSC value propositions into PPP-compatible structures. Drawing on stakeholder theory, institutional theory, and transaction cost economics, the study introduces the Entrepreneurial Business Developer Intermediary (EBDI) as this missing governance actor. Using a qualitative, theory-driven single-case study of the Niamey International Airport PPP in Niger, the paper triangulates AfDB project documentation, institutional records, OSC literature, policy benchmarks, and one expert interview with a senior contractor representative. The analysis identifies institutional barriers to OSC adoption, characterises the EBDI's intermediation functions, and develops the EBDI-OSC Enablement Model. The model articulates three interdependent enabling mechanisms: opportunity framing, which positions OSC as an investable proposition; stakeholder alignment, which secures coordinated multi-actor commitment across fragmented public-sector counterparties; and delivery structuring, which embeds OSC within contractual and procurement frameworks. The project documentation reports an estimated 18% reduction in the construction programme; however, this figure is treated as project-reported and not independently audited. The paper develops a mechanism-based governance framework to enable industrialised construction in complex PPP environments and argues that effective advisory mandates must extend beyond financial restructuring to encompass construction innovation and supply-chain integration.

Mass Timber Construction in South Africa: Assessing Perceived Sustainability Benefits and Industry Adoption Challenges

Emma Ayesu-Koranteng — 2026-08-12

This study investigates the perceived contribution of mass timber (MT) construction to Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being) by analysing survey responses from 54 construction industry professionals, including engineers and architects from South Africa and international contexts. The findings reveal a notable divergence in perception: while 100% of international respondents agreed on the comfort-related benefits of MT, South African respondents demonstrated higher levels of uncertainty, particularly regarding indoor air quality and post-construction performance. Overall, respondents reported strong positive perceptions of MT’s contribution to health and well-being, with a composite mean score of 4.56 out of 5. High levels of agreement were observed for improved indoor air quality (mean = 4.51) and psychological well-being benefits (mean = 4.63). Despite strong global consensus, the results highlight limited familiarity and adoption barriers within the South African context, including educational gaps, lack of local demonstration projects, and socio-cultural perceptions. The study underscores the need for targeted industry education, policy support, and practical implementation strategies to facilitate the adoption of MT in emerging markets.

Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG)-Oriented Decision Support in Off-Site Construction: A Lifecycle-Integrated Architecture

Z. Lu — 2026-08-12

Off-site construction (OSC) changes not only where construction activities are performed, but also how project decisions are distributed across the lifecycle. Decisions made during design and planning can shape manufacturing, logistics, on-site assembly, and operation, yet the knowledge needed to support these decisions is often dispersed across lifecycle stages, project teams, and information systems. This fragmentation becomes more critical when project teams are expected to consider environmental, social, and governance (ESG)-oriented value trade-offs, because such trade-offs are embedded in decision processes rather than confined to post-project performance evaluation. Existing decision support approaches in construction have advanced data integration, modelling, and analytical capability, but they remain limited in their ability to mobilise heterogeneous lifecycle and ESG-oriented knowledge in response to specific OSC decision contexts. This paper develops a lifecycle-integrated decision support system (DSS) architecture for supporting ESG-oriented decision-making in OSC projects. Adopting a problem-driven conceptual design approach informed by design science principles, the study proceeds through problem structuring, requirement derivation, and architecture synthesis. The main conceptual output is a lifecycle-integrated DSS architecture comprising three connected components: heterogeneous knowledge sources, a lifecycle-integrated knowledge base, and a retrieval-augmented generation (RAG)-enabled decision support engine. The architecture organises project knowledge around lifecycle stages, decision contexts, and knowledge domains, allowing ESG-oriented value trade-offs to be embedded within decision-relevant knowledge rather than treated as external evaluation criteria. The RAG-enabled decision support engine is designed to retrieve and synthesise relevant lifecycle, ESG-oriented, and project-context knowledge for specific decision situations. The study contributes by reframing ESG-oriented decision support in OSC as a problem of lifecycle knowledge structuring and context-specific knowledge integration. It provides a conceptual foundation for future prototype development, expert validation, and empirical testing.

Revisiting Cost Forecasting Methods in Construction Projects

Abubakar Muhammad — 2026-08-12

Accurate cost forecasting is fundamental to construction project management, yet the basis for selecting appropriate forecasting methods across different project conditions remains insufficiently articulated in the literature. This paper presents a structured conceptual review classifying construction cost forecasting methods into five groups: deterministic and rule-based, probabilistic and uncertainty-based, process- and physics-based, data-driven and machine-learning, and hybrid and integrative. A comparative SWOT analysis examines the analytical strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with each method group. A contingency-based method-selection framework is then developed, supported by six testable propositions linking project context, method choice, and expected forecast performance. The central argument is that method selection should be governed by methodological fit with the project context, including in off-site, modular, and industrialised construction, where cost behaviour reflects logistics, and supply-chain dynamics alongside site-based variability.

VR and BIM Integration Framework for H&S Management During Design Phase

Anurag Sanal Kumar Sindhujadevi — 2026-08-12

The construction industry faces high rates of accidents and injuries due to traditional risk identification methods, such as 2D drawings, manual inspections, and reactive assessments during construction, which hinder early hazard detection and multidisciplinary collaboration. Despite the potential of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Virtual Reality (VR) to improve health and safety (H&S) management, their integration for proactive design-phase applications remains underexplored.

This study develops and validates a BIM–VR workflow for early H&S hazard identification and management. Adopting a pragmatic philosophy and abductive mixed-methods approach, a literature review identified gaps in existing frameworks, informing workflow design using tools like Revit, Enscape, Navisworks, Vrex, and Autodesk Construction Cloud. The workflow was implemented on an anonymized real-project BIM model.

Quantitative validation against the construction-phase risk register showed over 80% of hazards were identified proactively. Qualitative assessment confirmed enhanced clarity and coordination in safety information. The BIM–VR workflow advances design-phase H&S by enabling immersive hazard review, metadata integration, and collaborative issue resolution, offering a replicable solution aligned with digital construction practices.

Benchmarking Off-Site Construction Readiness in Canada: A Survey-Based Assessment of Organizational Maturity Across Design, Manufacturing, and Construction

Rejsha Khoteja — 2026-08-12

Although construction is a cornerstone of economic and social development, the sector has lagged behind other industries in terms of productivity improvement. As digital transformation gains momentum, improving productivity in construction increasingly depends on the ability of organizations to adopt and integrate new delivery approaches, technologies, and workflows. In this context, assessing and benchmarking organizational readiness for off-site construction (OSC) has become increasingly important within the Canadian construction landscape.

This paper presents the development, pilot testing, and application of a national survey instrument designed to assess organizational maturity for OSC adoption in Canada, with the objective of supporting productivity-focused capability development. Three structured surveys were developed to evaluate maturity across the design, manufacturing, and construction phases using the dimensions of People, Process, and Technology. The survey instrument was informed by established maturity frameworks and refined through expert review. A pilot testing phase was conducted with industry participants to evaluate the clarity, relevance, and consistency of survey questions, leading to revisions that improved reliability and usability. The finalized surveys were implemented as a national benchmarking exercise through guided engagements with OSC-related organizations, capturing organizational characteristics, phase-specific involvement, and maturity levels on a five-point scale ranging from ad-hoc to innovative practices. Survey responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics to identify maturity patterns across phases and dimensions.

At the national scale, maturity levels across the three project phases and performance dimensions were relatively consistent, suggesting a broadly uniform level of OSC capability development across organizations. However, at this preliminary stage, regional and organizational-type comparisons suggest increased variability, offering preliminary insight into potential differences in OSC adoption pathways. The findings provide an initial exploratory survey-based benchmark of OSC organizational maturity in Canada and establish a scalable tool for ongoing benchmarking, longitudinal assessment, and evidence-based policy and investment decisions to support the advancement of off-site construction in Canada.

Integration of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Virtual Reality (VR) for Collaborative Design Review: A Comparative Study

Subin Thomas — 2026-08-12

The increasing complexity of Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) projects necessitates more effective communication among stakeholders and places greater demands on streamlining design information and workflows. This research aims to conduct a comparative study by integrating Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Virtual Reality (VR) into the design phase of construction projects using two VR platforms: Arkio and Vrex.

To this end, a framework with three core components has been developed: (1) a BIM model component, which contains the geometric, semantic, and orientation data of building elements; (2) a data transformation component, which transfers this information from the BIM environment into the VR platform; and (3) a collaborative design review component, which integrates BIM with VR and provides a set of functions to support collaborative design review.

The developed framework was applied to a case study to demonstrate its validity and practicality and to analyze the capabilities of Arkio and Vrex. The results highlight the potential of BIM–VR integration for improving cross-disciplinary collaboration and informed decision-making during the design phase. This research supports practitioners in incorporating BIM and VR into their design review workflows, helping to eliminate design errors caused by limited collaboration or inefficient communication.

Leveraging Blockchain Innovation for Improving Transparency and Integrity in Public Infrastructure Procurement Process in Nigeria

Rex Asibuodu Ugulu — 2026-08-12

In Nigeria, public procurement constitutes more than 80% of the government expenditure. Governments in Nigeria spend up to 10-25% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on procurement of goods, services and works. Unfortunately, this substantial outlay has been threatened by increasing rates of corruption and inefficiencies in procurement processes. Blockchain presents a promising solution to the persistent problems through digitalisation of transactions, increased transparency, immutable record keeping and automated Smart Contracts that minimise malpractice and human discretion. The research seeks to explore the use of blockchain technology in enhancing procurement transparency and integrity in Nigeria's public infrastructure development. The study adopted a quantitative research design, employing a stratified random sampling method for the selection of the sample. A sample size of 68 respondents, distributed across all six geopolitical zones in Nigeria, was selected to provide adequate data. A structured questionnaire was adopted for data collection. The analysis of the collected data was done using both descriptive and inferential statistics (reliability test and multiple regression analysis). The findings of the research show a positive relationship between the implementation of blockchain and improvement in procurement transparency, accountability, and efficiency. Challenges like regulatory environment, environmental sustainability, infrastructure, scalability, and interoperability persist. Recommendations include regulatory framework updates to accommodate digital ledger technologies, adequate training for procurement personnel on blockchain operations, and a multi-dimensional strategy for validating blockchain solutions. This research contributes to the development of a framework for digital governance and infrastructure procurement by outlining empirical insights, theoretical foundations, and practical suggestions for adopting blockchain technology, informing practitioners, policymakers, and stakeholders seeking to minimise corruption and improve integrity in infrastructure procurement in Nigeria.

Mapping the Knowledge Structure and Research Trends in Construction Automation: A Global Bibliometric Review

N.A Olatunde — 2026-08-12

The rapid advancement of digital technologies has positioned construction automation as a critical enabler of efficiency, safety, and productivity within the built environment. However, despite the growing body of literature, existing studies remain fragmented and largely technology-specific, lacking a unified understanding of the field’s intellectual structure and evolution. Addressing this gap, this study provides one of the first comprehensive and data-driven mappings of construction automation research through a global bibliometric review of Scopus-indexed publications. A total of 1,420 documents published between 2015 and 2026 were analysed using productivity analysis and advanced network-based techniques, including keyword co-occurrence and bibliographic coupling. The findings reveal a significant acceleration in research output after 2020, indicating a transition from exploratory studies to a more mature and application-oriented research domain. The field exhibits a moderately concentrated authorship structure and strong geographical dominance by technologically advanced countries, particularly the United States and China. Keyword network analysis identifies three dominant and interconnected thematic clusters: robotics and automated construction technologies, AI-enabled safety monitoring and performance optimisation. The strong interlinkages among these clusters highlight an emerging convergence toward integrated and intelligent construction ecosystems. This study advances theoretical understanding by explicitly mapping the knowledge structure and revealing the convergence of engineering and management perspectives in construction automation research. Unlike prior technology-specific reviews focusing primarily on artificial intelligence, digital intelligence, or Construction 4.0 applications, this study provides a holistic and systematic bibliometric synthesis of construction automation as an integrated research domain, revealing its intellectual structure, thematic convergence, and emerging research trajectories. The findings offer valuable guidance for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers seeking to advance digital and automated construction practices.

Digital-Enabled Off-Site Construction for Disaster-Resilient Built Environments: A Systematic Review and Conceptual Framework

I.A Awodele — 2026-08-12

The increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related disasters present significant challenges for the resilience of the built environment. Conventional construction practices often struggle to respond effectively to these challenges due to their resource-intensive nature, lengthy project timelines, and limited adaptability. Off-site construction (OSC), including modular and prefabricated systems, has emerged as a promising approach for improving construction efficiency, reducing waste, and accelerating infrastructure delivery. At the same time, digital technologies such as Building Information Modelling (BIM), digital twins, and Internet of Things (IoT) systems are transforming the planning, design, and management of built assets. Despite growing interest in these developments, research addressing the intersection of digitalisation, off-site construction, and disaster resilience remains fragmented. This study presents a systematic review of literature examining how digital technologies can enhance the resilience and sustainability of off-site construction systems. The review synthesises existing knowledge on disaster resilience in the built environment and identifies emerging opportunities for integrating digital technologies with OSC practices. The findings reveal that although resilience has been widely discussed in policy and academic discourse, practical implementation within construction delivery remains limited due to institutional, technical, and knowledge barriers. The paper proposes an integrated conceptual framework linking digital technologies, off-site construction, and resilient infrastructure development. The study contributes to ongoing discussions on sustainable and resilient construction by highlighting pathways for integrating digital innovation with modern construction methods to support disaster-resilient built environments.

Blockchain Adoption in AI-Enabled Quantity Surveying: Transforming Construction Cost Management

I.A Awodele — 2026-08-12

The construction industry continues to experience persistent challenges in cost management due to fragmented information systems, manual documentation processes, and limited transparency in financial transactions. Within this context, Quantity Surveying (QS) practice remains heavily dependent on document-driven workflows such as spreadsheets, emails, and isolated cost management systems. These practices often lead to data inconsistencies, delayed valuations, disputes over measurements and variations, and reduced trust among project stakeholders. Despite the growing adoption of digital technologies such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) and cloud collaboration platforms, issues of data integrity, traceability, and secure automation remain inadequately addressed. This study aims to investigate how blockchain technology can be adopted within AI-enabled Quantity Surveying services to enhance transparency, improve cost-management efficiency, and support secure automation of financial processes in construction projects. The research adopts a systematic literature review methodology, analysing recent studies on blockchain, artificial intelligence, and digital transformation in construction cost management. The collected literature is examined through thematic analysis to identify key technological capabilities, adoption challenges, and integration mechanisms. The study proposes a conceptual adoption framework that integrates blockchain-based distributed ledgers, smart contracts, and AI-driven analytics to support transparent cost verification, automated valuation processes, and tamper-proof financial records. The findings highlight the potential of blockchain-enabled QS services to enhance trust, accountability, and efficiency across construction cost management workflows. However, challenges relating to data governance, interoperability, regulatory acceptance, and organisational readiness remain key limitations for large-scale implementation.

Exploring Trends on Automation of Construction Processes: Extent and Enablers in Nigeria

N.A Olatunde — 2026-08-12

This study investigates the extent and enablers of automation of construction processes in Nigeria with a view to improving project performance in developing economies. Despite increasing global adoption of automation technologies, there remains a lack of empirical quantification of automation levels in developing countries. Adopting a positivist paradigm and quantitative research design, data were collected from 198 built environment professionals across Lagos and Abuja using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistical tools, including mean score analysis, t-test, and ANOVA, were employed. Findings reveal that automation adoption in the Nigerian construction industry is low (MS = 2.194), with relatively higher implementation in the pre-construction phase. Significant regional disparities were observed, with Lagos exhibiting higher automation levels than Abuja. Critical enablers identified include stable electricity, technical expertise, and supportive government policy. The study contributes to knowledge by providing implications for Diffusion of Innovation Theory, Technology Acceptance Model, Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, and Construction 4.0 through the introduction of environmental feasibility as a key determinant of adoption. Furthermore, a Construction Automation Readiness Framework (CARF) is developed to guide policy and implementation in resource-constrained environments. The findings provide a robust empirical and theoretical foundation for advancing automation in developing economies.

AI, BIM and Achieving the SDGs: Exploring the Gaps for a Sustainable Construction Industry

Samuel Adekunle — 2026-08-12

The construction industry is at the forefront of adopting innovative technologies to meet the global challenges posed by sustainable development. This study explores the intersection of Artificial Intelligence (AI), Building Information Modeling (BIM), and the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) within the construction sector. Through a comprehensive review of existing studies, the research investigates how AI and BIM can synergistically contribute to achieving key SDGs, such as sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, and climate action. The data was obtained from the Scopus database using keywords to extract it. The study findings highlight that AI enhances BIM capabilities by providing predictive analytics, optimizing resource management, improving decision-making processes, and promoting sustainability throughout the construction lifecycle. It also identifies the various research areas and future directions. The research concludes that while the nexus between AI, BIM, and SDGs presents significant opportunities for advancing sustainability in construction, a strategic and collaborative approach is necessary to fully realize their potential and overcome existing barriers. This study provides valuable insights for industry stakeholders, policymakers, and researchers aiming to leverage emerging technologies to drive sustainable development in construction.

A Decision-Support Framework for Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Maintenance Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process

O.D Adetola — 2026-08-12

Urban infrastructure maintenance is critical for ensuring the long-term sustainability, safety, and performance of cities. However, many developing countries continue to rely on traditional maintenance approaches that are reactive and inefficient. Rapid urbanisation, population growth, and climate change have placed significant pressure on infrastructure systems, highlighting the need for more sustainable and proactive maintenance strategies. This study develops a framework for sustainable urban infrastructure maintenance by integrating environmental, economic, resilience, and technological considerations. A qualitative research approach was adopted through a systematic review of secondary data from peer-reviewed literature, policy documents, and infrastructure management studies. Key themes relating to sustainable infrastructure maintenance were identified and synthesised into a decision-support framework. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was employed as a multi-criteria decision-making tool to evaluate and prioritise maintenance strategies. The analysis considered four main criteria: environmental impact, economic efficiency, resilience and adaptability, and technology integration. Results from the AHP analysis indicate that environmental impact is the most influential criterion, while climate-resilient infrastructure emerged as the highest-ranked maintenance strategy. The study demonstrates how multi-criteria decision-making techniques can effectively support the development of sustainable infrastructure maintenance frameworks. The proposed framework provides practical guidance for policymakers, engineers, and urban planners seeking to improve infrastructure resilience and sustainability in rapidly urbanising regions.

Night Shift in Offsite and Hybrid Construction Delivery: Drivers, Challenges and a Decision Support Framework

Omar Doukari — 2026-08-12

Night shift operations are a growing feature of offsite and hybrid construction delivery, driven by traffic management restrictions and programme demands that confine module transport, crane lifts, and structural installation to overnight windows. Night working is widely adopted across building, infrastructure, and civil engineering projects to accelerate delivery and recover schedule float, yet adoption decisions remain largely intuitive and unsupported by integrated analytical tools.

This paper presents a systematic literature review examining the drivers and challenges of night shift adoption across construction project types and introduces the Shift Strategy Decision Support System (SSDSS) as a conceptual framework to address the identified gap. Based on a review of construction scheduling, occupational health and safety, environmental compliance, stochastic modelling, and multicriteria optimisation literature, eleven drivers across three categories and fourteen challenges across four categories are identified.

The SSDSS integrates seven modules encompassing resource-constrained scheduling, fatigue and safety risk assessment, environmental compliance evaluation, and Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) using AHP-TOPSIS. Worker safety and human factors are embedded as core planning parameters. The framework is designed for integration with BIM-based environments and establishes theoretical foundations for a digital decision support tool applicable across offsite, hybrid, and conventional construction projects.